Two Perspectives of Organization Theory Essay -- Business Management

Organization theory is the body of knowledge related to the examination and analysis of both the internal workings of organizations and their interactions with their external environments. This knowledge is generated either through practical experience or through scientific inquiry. Organization theory is also concerned with applying this knowledge to designing and managing organizations. Contrary to what the term â€Å"organization theory† might suggest, the literature of this field of study teems with a variety of organization theories. Each theory offers a perspective for understanding organizations. The wealth of perspectives in organization theory stems from the diverse, complex, and dynamic nature of organizations and the wide range of academic disciplines underlying the field of organization theory. For any field of study as diverse as organization theory, controversies are bound to occur. Such a clash of perspectives occurred when Herbert Simon published â€Å"The Pro verbs of Public Administration†---a biting criticism of classical organization theory as exemplified by the work of Luther Gulick. I shall first summarize Gulick’s and Simon’s central ideas about organizations, laying the ground to compare and contrast their approaches. Then I will consider Simon’s critique of Gulick, and to be fair to Gulick, we shall also examine arguments from an article written in Gulick’s defense by Thomas Hammond. In the course of the discussion of the Gulick-Simon debate, I will take the liberty to interpose my comments on the arguments put forth. My global comments on this debate are collected toward the end of this think piece. Let us first consider Gulick’s perspective on organizations. Gulick’s work on organization theory belongs t... ...e possibility for cross-fertilization between the existing paradigms exists. Perhaps, the best that can be done is to establish frameworks in which multiple paradigms provide different viewpoints from which to examine the complexities of organizations. Works Cited Gulick, Luther H. 1937. â€Å"Notes on the Theory of Organization† in Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick (eds.), Papers on the Science of Administration, 1–45. New York: Institute of Public Administration, Columbia University. Simon, Herbert A. 1946. â€Å"The proverbs of Administration,† Public Administration Review 6, 53–67. Simon, Herbert A. 1947. Administrative Behavior. Fourth edition 1997. New York: The Free Press. Hammond, Thomas H. 1990. â€Å"In Defence of Luther Gulick’s ‘Notes on the Theory of Organization.’† Public Administration 68, 143–173.

Critically Assess Whether Strategic Hrm Leads to ‘High Performance’’

Essay Question 1: ‘Critically assess whether strategic HRM leads to ‘high performance’’ Introduction There is a controversy whether the Strategic Human Resources Management (SHRM) leads to ‘high performance’. A general idea of SHRM is that â€Å"the linkage of management and deployment of the individual within the firm to the business overall and its environment whereas HRM is the activities that take place under this area. † Truss and Gratton (1994). It spotlights on long-term strategy.Two theoretical perspectives to the Strategic Human Resources Management (SHRM) will be introduced and compared to determine whether they manage to ‘high performance’ or not. First, the Universalist approach is ‘one best way’ of dealing human resource to improve business performance. Second, the Contingency approach is to align HR policies and practices with the details of business strategy to create a positive impact on business. In addition, two examples: a large company and a medium-size company will be used to illustrate both approaches practically.At the same time, there are issues associate with theoretical perspectives that need to be discussed. Such issues are the implementation problems as well as the measurement problems. After all, the question will be answered with analysing all of the above. The advantages and disadvantages of each approach will be identified by gathering views of researchers. To the final stage, both approaches are being recognised if the linkage is existence to ‘high performance’ and to the level of measure that are being noticed. Different approaches to SHRM * Universalist approachA Universalist approach is known as ‘best practice’ human resource management (HRM). This approach describes there is ‘one best way’ to manage people in order to improve organizational performance. It argues that all organizations, regardless of sector, size or country, will benefit from identifying, gaining commitment to and implementing a set of best HRM practices. The job of a researcher is to identify what the practices are, and a job of HR professional to implement them. For example, a research from Delery and Doty (1996) identify certain practices that improve organizational performance.The detailed components are ‘high performance work systems (HPWS)’ Berg (1999); Appelbaum et al (2000), ‘high commitment management’ Walton (1985); Guest (2001a, 2001b) and ‘high involvement management’ Wood (1999a). Another researcher by Jeffrey Pfeffer (1998) identifies that seven universally applicable practices will benefit all firms. The components include: 1) Employment security, 2) Careful hiring, 3) Self-managed teams and decentralized decision-making, 4) Comparatively high compensation, 5) Extensive training, 6) Low status distinctions and barriers, 7) Extensive sharing of financial and performance info rmation.The implication is that when a coherent bundle of HR practices is outlined, the integrated HR practices will impact positively on organizational performance. The ‘best practice’ HRM sees there is ‘one best way’ of managing people and that is appropriate across all circumstances. * Contingency Approach On the other hand, the Contingency approach is known as ‘best-fit’ HRM. It takes account of factors such as organizational size, location, sector, strategy and the nature of work. Baird and Meshoulam’s (1998) model advocates that HRM approaches will differ giving to different life-cycle stages.These life cycle stages ranges from start-up to maturity. While an organization is growing and maturing over time, it becomes gradually complex. Therefore, more sophisticated HR structures and policies are needed. This approach focuses on two types of ‘fit’ and ‘line management integration’. The first type is ‘E xternal fit’ and it is commonly known as ‘vertical fit’. It is in coherence and alignment with business strategy and external market factors. When HR policies and practices are aligned to strategic focus, performance will improve.Porter’s (1985) strategic options on 1) Cost Leadership, 2) Differentiation and Innovation and 3) Focus are adopted. The second type is ‘Internal fit’ and it can also interpret to ‘horizontal fit’. HR policies and practices are all fit together so that they are in coherence. They are also mutually reinforcing and are applied continuously. Jeffrey Pfeffer’s (1998) seven practices are adopted. Lastly, ‘Line management integration’ is when line managers act as a critical character in implementing HRM strategy. Best-fit’ HRM suggests that the best to manage people will vary depending on organizational circumstances, and hence, the link to business strategy is key. Empirical evidence of SHRM model * A large company – Tarmac The UK quarrying company Tarmac has over 12500 employees at present. The operations function is key to overall company’s performance. It needs the support of finance managers, zone managers and HR managers. A finance manager delivers financial and management accounts to contribute the strategic decision-making process by forecasting financial performance.A zone manager manages operational performance. They meet and improve targets for cost, quality, delivery, safety and business ethics shown in key performance indicators (KPIs). Lastly a HR manager ensures business managers apply HR policies and procedures. The company’s goal is to achieve objectives by motivating all individuals working together as one team across the business units and functions. Each objective has its strategies. The followings practices are to achieve ‘Engage employees’ and ‘Act Responsibly’ objectives.Firstly, Tarmac focuse s on a high level of employee involvement and encourages high employee commitment to the organization so that workers feel they are trusted and treated in an open and positive attitude. For example, employees regularly discuss with managers about their viewpoints within development teams. This helps workers feel part of the wider team, strengthens employee engagement and commitment to the company. Secondly, team-working practices create a closer supervision and a flat hierarchy. A coaching style manager develops employees to manage themselves rather than to manage each task.Employee’s suggestions are offered, and this contributes to improvements in organizational performance. An example of Tarmac targets and measures a decline in waste. In 2010, eighteen workshop-training sessions were held for all site employees on CO2 awareness and energy. All district managers were involved in the programme. Some external experts from Carbon Trust were also invited to support the rollout o f the training programme. As a result, Tarmac gained benefit from 500 energy and CO2 reduction. Overall, Tarmac adopted a high commitment strategy to meet the objectives.Therefore, it improved the company’s performance. * A small-medium size company – i-LEVEL i-Level is one of the most innovative digital media companies and is ranked the ‘Sunday Times 100 best companies to work for’ in 2004. It has a size of workforce of 60 employees. The i-Level company has a high level of financial performance. There was a 33 per cent increase in earnings per annum. Their guiding principles are used as a framework. This is to ensure the internal fit and the external fit of company. The company is at the growing stage which a lot of the recruitment effort is on discovering the potential staff. -Level frequently seeks appropriate employees to be supported to work with the company. To fit HR policies and practices together, i-Level uses physical arrangements to remove top-d own hierarchy in order to encourage employees’ participation, communication, creativity, self-managed teams and organisational values. As a result, a complete, open plan office is the environment where employees conduct their normal day-to-day operations. Moreover, i-Level sees pay is significant for performance. 15 per cent of the company’s pre-tax profit is kept for performance bonuses from 2003 to 2004.Meanwhile, the company argues pay is not their primary motivating force. On the other hand, the company aligns with business strategy and external environment by providing training courses for technical skills in media advertising. The company also offers an unusual training budget. There is an annual allowance provided for personal training and development purposes that are no obvious relation with work. The belief is to develop the skills and interests of workers in ways not studied before. This is expected to enhance i-level workers’ innovative thoughts at w ork through practices outside the company’s work area.To summaries, i-LEVEL achieves competitive advantage through innovation and which competes in very tight labour markets. It adopted Porter’s strategic option of ‘Focus’ and Pfeffer’s 7 practices to enhance the company's performance. Additional issues to reflect * Problems of implementation Line managers are central HRM performers in the organization, and they play a vital role in implementation of HR policies and practices. They influence their team‘s performance in a direct manner. A number of factors account for the line management problem. Firstly, it seems there is devolution to line managers.For instance, line managers do not want the responsibility of being a line manager or do not have enough time to deal with it accurately. They might not have the skills to handle HR issues successfully or are unaware of recent developments in view of HRM. Some managers do not consider a long-term v iew of the company or are inefficient for making policy in this area. Secondly, McGovern et al (1997), Marchington (2001) and Hutchinson and Purcell (2003) identify there are differences between ‘espoused’ and ‘actual’ policies that are relatively recognized to line managers.For example, some policies are normative rather than positive. Some descriptions of policies and practices are in general terms rather than analytical about actual situations. Hence, managers are unable to implement them specifically to meet the company’s goals. Furthermore, a broader issue, the line manager jobs in firms become progressively complex due to new firms’ structures. For instance, virtual and network companies have less clear line manager characters than the layered hierarchical company. One observable implication is pressure for reducing the size of the HR department.There will be a cut down in numbers of HR professionals. Ultimately, these factors all affect the organizational performance due to unsuccessful implementation of HR policies and practices. * Problems of measurement Fitzgerald (1991) and Neely (1998) stated that performance measurement is a key issue in guaranteeing the effective implementation of a firm’s strategy. However, using inadequate measurements is poor in supporting managements’ business objectives. The followings are the circumstances. Scientists use large-scale data groups made self-completed questionnaires.This will lead to two problems. First of all, there is dependence on one person, to represent the whole group. Secondly, there is dependence on a design of questionnaires. For example, respondents are answering yes or no questions rather than giving thoughts and opinions. This type of questions may generate a less accurate result. Moreover, there is uncertainty of how the data should be gathered, presented and analysed. The major problem is mis-reporting single respondents. Respondents may have limited knowledge of the area and use of policies.Furthermore, the measures of performance commonly take account of the financial performance, whereas there is a few findings focus on the broader issue of employee attitudes and well-being. Equally, there are matters to the range of HR practices. For instance, a report shows statistics of whether a company has self-managed teams, some may look at the proportion of workers running in a self-managed team. Lastly, Atkinson (2005) suggests that the measurement of productivity in the service sector can be exceptionally challenging.It is always easy to get typical, comparable financial statistics. To sum up, the measurement of data are related to the level of relevance to business performance. Critical analysis of the beyond * Best practice Pros ; Cons Research states there is a positive link between the HR practices and organisational performance. Firstly, Huselid (1995, p. 667) discovered that ‘the degree of returns for investments in High Performance Work Systems is significant’. In fact, ‘A one standard deviation rise in High Performance Work Systems practices is associated with a comparative 7. 5 per cent drop in labour turnover. On ‘per employee’ base, $27,044, $18,641 and $3814 more in sales, more in market value and profits respectively. Secondly, the workplace employee relation survey (Cully et al 1999) indicates that there is 14 per cent of organisations adopted high commitment strategy. In contrast, researcher (Delery 1998) also emphasized ‘deadly’ bundles of practices need to be avoided. For example, it occurs to managers giving reward based on individual performance while they are working as a team.Furthermore, Boxall and Purcell (2003, p. 64) commented while multi-national companies make the effort standardise their practices across nations, national perspective and organisational sectoral perspectives show criticism on the effectiveness of these practices. M archington and Grulis (2000, p. 1117) argue the most common example is in labour intensive organisations recognise costs are expensive when they use these practices. To summaries the best practice approach, Guest’s (1987) argues that there is no best practice.At the same time, he also suggests a set of best practices such as high commitment management is the route to survival of UK business. This leads to an argument that in order to enhance company performance, managers must alter their HR policies and practices to the framework that is operational. The interpretation comes to ‘best-fit’ approach. * Best-fit Pros ; Cons Thompson (2000) conducted two studies of firms in the UK aerospace industry. His first study in 1997 showed that with higher levels of value added per worker encourages greater diffusion of innovative working practices with their non-management employees.These organisations are towards to more heavily engaged in specialist production for niche ma rkets and hired technical and professional workers. The second study in 1999 showed evidence that organizations introduced a larger number of high performance work practices had much enhanced business performance. As a result, companies moving from less than five to more than six innovative practices created a 34 per cent increase in value added per worker. On the other hand, Miles and Snow (1984) align suitable managerial types to three genetic strategies of prospector, defender and analyser.If managerial properties and skills are aligned to company strategy, there will be a higher level of link to organisational performance. Thomas and Ramaswamy (1996) offered such support. As a result, performance in aligned firms was statistically excellent. In comparison, (Purcell 1999 p. 35) outlines that a number of successful organisations features that are unable to model. These are the cultural norms that have been developed gradually over a long period associated with accomplishment. It i s easy to identify the key factors that drive to success. Especially when the organisations are large and complex.Imaginably the major problem is that many organisations exist inside complex external environments with multiple contingencies that are not to be ignored or recognized. * Comparing both approaches Each approach has advantages evidence and disadvantages evidence. It could be argued that different approaches can apply in different sectors. For example, Guest (2001) advocates that there is the possibility that a high commitment management is most applicable in manufacturing i. e. Tarmac, while strategic choice for fitting with business strategy, is more credible in the service sector i. . i-LEVEL. As a whole, critically discuss the link between SHRM and performance. Evidence from Patterson et al (1997) examined sixty-seven manufacturing businesses in the UK for a period. The outcomes were 19 per cent of profitability and 18 per cent of the variation in productivity could be certified to HRM practices. This demonstrated HRM practices has a positive impact on organisational performance. Conclusion In summary, SHRM consists of a number of practices and is an organization level analysis of how HRM systems impact on performance.Two theoretical perspectives outline different views. The ‘best-practice’ approach defines there is ‘one best way’ of managing people. It is appropriate across all circumstances. Whereas ‘best-fit’ approach terms the best to manage people will change depending on organizational circumstances. It highlights the essence of linking business strategy. Tarmac was used as an example. It applied the ‘best practice’ approach and adopted a high commitment strategy to meet the objectives. Hence Tarmac improved its firm’s performance.I-Level was used an example to describe the competitive advantage the company had achieved through innovation while competing in extremely tight labour ma rket. It adopted Porter’s strategic option of ‘Focus’ and Pfeffer’s 7 practices to enhance the firm’s performance. Empirical evidences show both organisations are successful with adopting different approaches to their specific, targeted firms. These firms had a positive impact on performance. This can be concluded that SHRM has a clear link to business performance practically. In depth, other issues such as implementation and measurement roblems are considered. Problems of implementation affect the organizational performance due to unsuccessful implementation of HR policies and practices in line management. On the other hand, problems of measurement are valued on the basis of how easy and difficult the data is to represent and most importantly the level of relevance to business performance. If the relevance is slight, it may have little or no impact on business performance. In the final stage of comparing both approaches, many researchers’ po int of views is gathered. ‘Best-practice’ approach has advantages and disadvantages.It seems to argue that high commitment management is the route to successful business performance. On the other hand, the advantages and disadvantages of ‘best-fit’ approach suggest that applying this approach can be rigid and inflexibility due exists of complex external environments. Furthermore, in recent arguments, the product labour market seems to be emerged to a new post-industrial age where employers will tend to hire self-employed workers to carry out specific, time-limited projects for companies. This is due to the prediction of radical change.It can lead to a view that ‘best-fit’ approach should to be managed appropriately. This means practices should be adequate in different company’s life-cycle stage and align with different strategies. So that, it can feasibly enhance the organizational performance. Finally, strategic human resources manageme nt gives evidences, views, researches and facts to enhance organizational performance. However, the degree of high performance in context varies in different organizations under their circumstances. Hence, it does not necessary impact to ‘high’ performance.

The United States Of America And India Essay - 881 Words

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Increasing Cultural Competence in the Field of...

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Evaluating the View that Poverty is Caused by Economic...

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Suicide and Adolescent Psychology Free Essays

Adolescent Psychology is a difficult specialty within the field. Many of the normal phases of adolescent development look like pathologies, and perhaps would be classified as such if the patients were adults. Thus, it is difficult, even for a trained professional, to tell the difference between a true pathology, and a â€Å"normal† mood or personality pattern associated with adolescent development. We will write a custom essay sample on Suicide and Adolescent Psychology or any similar topic only for you Order Now An area where this deficiency can lead to grave circumstances is the realm of adolescent depression and suicide. Although true suicidal tendencies can be difficult to spot in adolescent behavior, timely identification and proper treatment are important goals of Adolescent psychologists. Although causal theories differ, the treatment of teen suicide attempts and depression is fairly consistent across adolescent theorists. Typical symptomology of suicidal tendencies in adults has several features. (Symptoms†¦2007) The underlying psychological cause of such ideations is usually depression. (Symptoms†¦2007) Symptoms of depression include sleeping pattern disruptions, feelings of low self-worth, loss of interest in pleasurable activities and lack of energy. (Symptoms†¦2007) One of the key indicators that a depressed adult is contemplating suicide is self-report. (Symptoms†¦2007) Often, adults are not treated for suicidal depression until after they had made an attempt on their own life. (Symptoms†¦2007)   Treatment for long-term depression in adults typically consists of medication and extensive therapy. (Symptoms†¦2007) They type and length of therapy is contingent on many factors. (Symptoms†¦2007) These include the specialty of the therapist, the diagnosed underlying condition, and the severity of the depressive state. Similarly, the medical regime for adults with suicidal depression varies as a function of the underlying psychological cause for the depression. (Symptoms†¦2007) Typical depressive mood disorders are treated with anti-depressants, while personality or perception disorders, which can lead to a secondary depressive condition, are better treated with medication targeted to the underlying disorder. (Symptoms†¦2007) As complicated as the diagnosis and treatment of suicidal depression is in adults, it is even more so in the adolescent population. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   Suicide is the third-most common cause of death among individuals between the ages of fifteen and twenty-four. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   There are large gender differences in accounting for teen suicide, but they are explained more by the methods used, than any particular predilection toward the act. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   83% of adolescent suicides are males, whereas females make more attempts at suicide. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   The discrepancy can be explained by the fact that males are far more likely to use a gun in their attempts, while the method of choice for females is pills. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   Of the two, the chances for success are much higher among those who use a gun. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)   According to the National institute of Mental health, successful suicides among adolescents number about 8 in 100,000. (Teen Suicide†¦2005)     Attempts at suicide are estimated to be much higher. (Teen Suicide†¦2005) The National Youth Violence Prevention Resource center found that about one in five teens think about suicide, one in six have actually planned for it, and one in twelve had attempted suicide in the past year(Teen Suicide†¦2005)   . As is the case with adults, most (about 90%) of adolescent suicide victims have an underlying mental disorder. (Teen Suicide†¦2005) One moder theory of suicide in adolescence is espoused by Dr. David Elkind. He posits that there is a gap between physical and psychological development, which causes stress in the adolescent. (Elkind, 1998) Dr. Elkind theorizes that teenagers, who are often treated as adults at home and in schools, are not as complete in their psychological development as they are in their physical development. (Elkind, 1998) This results, opines Dr. Elkind in a stressful dissonance that can lead to suicidal ideation. (Elkind, 1998)   Additionally, exposing an adolescent to adult-type stressors, such as deadlines, appointments and specific goal-driven activities can cause stress. (Elkind, 1998)   This stress can lead to depression and suicide. (Elkind, 1998) On the other side of the coin, Dr. Elkind believes that over scheduling a young child may leave him or her bored when the structure surrounding the child disappears in their teen years. (Elkind, 1998) This subsequent lack of direction can also lead to depression. (Elkind, 1998) This theory suggests a preventative viewpoint on teen suicide. (Elkind, 1998)   Once an adolescent articulates a desire for suicide, or makes the attempt, Dr. Elkind recommends the standard psychological treatment, and medication, if warranted. (Elkind, 1998) A more environmental viewpoint is espoused by Dr. Bronfenbrenner. (Paquette Ryan, n.d.)   He views human development as an interaction between individuals and a system of bioecological systems. (Paquette Ryan, n.d.) He views any psychopathology, including teen depression or suicide as a dysfunction whose development is engendered by deficiencies in the mesosystem (immediate social surroundings) of the individual. (Paquette Ryan, n.d.) This approach to development does not lend itself particularly well to the treatment phase of suicide in adolescents, rather, it offers a socially-constructed theory for the phenomenon. (Paquette Ryan, n.d.) Preventative â€Å"treatment† in this paradigm would consist of fostering a healthy, positive mesosystem around the individual, so that they might develop in a psychologically healthy manner. Again, one is forced to conclude that an already-depressed or suicidal teen would be best served by therapy and possible pharmaceutical remedies. (Paquette Ryan, n.d.) A more cognitive approach to adolescent behavior is espoused by Dr. Robert Selman. (Selman’s†¦2002) His theories, which are derived from those of Piaget, rely on modeling and other cognitive methods to explain behavior. (Selman’s†¦2002) As such, he would explain the phenomenon of adolescent suicide as a response to a social context where such behavior is observed to have a positive outcome. (Selman’s†¦2002) Rarely would the cues be direct, but cultural stimuli such as music, television, and movies could inadvertently (or blatantly) glamorize the practice of suicide, and compel an adolescent, especially one who already suffers from depression or some other psychological ailment to attempt suicide. (Selman’s†¦2002)   Of these theories, the one whose suggested treatment appears to be most effective is Selman’s. Cognitive therapy has been found to decrease repeated suicide attempts by 50%. (Asher, 2005) While this particular study focused on adults, there is little reason to think that the results would be demonstrably different with adolescents. (Asher, 2005) Interestingly, the same cannot be said of pharmaceutical treatment options. (DeNoon, 2002) It has been shown that teens who take antidepressants actually have an increased rate of suicide than those who do not. (DeNoon, 2002) Recent evidence suggests, however, that the same studies prove that the conclusion drawn from the data was erroneous, as the scientists failed to control for other variables such as severity of the depression, and other factors. (DeNoon, 2002)   Despite these conflicting findings, or perhaps because of them, a therapist should be cautious about â€Å"throwing drugs at the problem† and dismissing a patient with a prescription. (DeNoon, 2002)   In addition to the pitfalls of possible adverse effects of the drugs themselves, this kind of treatment is far more vulnerable to negative outcomes hinged on misdiagnosis. (DeNoon, 2002)   If a closely monitored patient is found to have another type of disorder, to which depression is merely a secondary characteristic, that therapist can make the appropriate pharmacological and therapeutic revisions. (DeNoon, 2002)   If, on the other hand, an underlying condition is missed, and the patient dismissed with antidepressants, the results could be tragic. (DeNoon, 2002) Owing to the nature of serotonin-stimulating drugs, which most antidepressants are, an effect of a non-depressed person taking this medication is the onset of severe depression. (DeNoon, 2002)   This would result in the therapist causing the very symptoms he or she is attempting to relieve. (DeNoon, 2002) The main commonality of all of these perspectives is the need to monitor closely the disposition of the patient. The only way to differentiate true depression from a phasic anomaly of normal adolescent development is to observe the behavior and responses over a long period of time. For example, behavior that might be characterized as bipolar, buts of high energy and enthusiasm contrasted with lethargy and depression may be the normal reaction to hormone development in an adolescent. Without context, it is almost impossible to tell the difference Thus, the best preventative measure would be to treat any suicidal ideation as a serious symptom and have a therapist interact for a long period with the adolescent. References Asher, J. (2005). â€Å"Cognitive Therapy Reduces Repeat Suicide Attempts by 50 Percent.† Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from The National Institutes of Health (NIH) website: http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2005/nimh-02a.htm   DeNoon, D. (2002) â€Å"Teen Suicide, Antidepressant Link Questioned.† Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from WebMD website: http://www.webmd.com/depression/news/20041215/teen-suicide-antidepressant-link-questioned Elkind, D. (1998) All Grown Up and No Place To Go. Peresus Publishing, Cambridge, MA. Pp. 1-290. Paquette, D. Ryan, J. (n.d.) â€Å"Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.† Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from National-Louis University website: http://pt3.nl.edu/paquetteryanwebquest.pdf â€Å"Selman’s Five Stages of Perspective Taking,† (2002) Retrieved October 28th, 2008 from Everything-2 website: http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1275038 â€Å"Symptoms of Depression†. (2007) retrieved October 28th, 2008 from Psychology 24Ãâ€"7 website: http://www.psychiatry24x7.com/bgdisplay.jhtml?itemname=depression_symptoms â€Å"Teen Suicide Statistics.† (2005) retrieved October 28th, 2008 from Teen Depression website: http://www.teendepression.org/articles1.html How to cite Suicide and Adolescent Psychology, Papers

Wireless Technologies Stationary Wireless Applications

Questions: 1.Compare and contrast three data encryption standards for WiMAX networks?2.Research the security challenges for any two examples of WPAN technologies. Answers: 1. WiMAX is a developing wireless technology based on IEEE 802.16 standard (Alzaabi1, Ranjeeth Alukaidey Salman 2013). WiMAX has been designed to work with mobile, immobile or stationary wireless applications (TechTarget, 2010).Security is particularly critical in wireless networks such as WiMAX (Alzaabi1 et al., 2013). Security mechanisms in WiMAX are defined in IEEE 802.16e (Alzaabi1 et al., 2013).One of the mechanism used to secure data in WiMAX is data encryption. Data encryption is the process of converting a message into a scrambled structure for security purposes (Forouzan, 2013).AES, 3DES and RSA are some of the data encryption mechanism used in WiMAX networks. Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is a new encryption standard commended by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES procedures works with 128 bits and can use keys with lengths of either 128, 192, or 256 bits. For 128 bits the process takes 10 rounds, for 192 bits it takes 12 rounds and 256 bits takes 14 rounds to decrypt a message (Youssouf, Othman, Siraj Nkiama, 2016). 3DES stands for Triple Data Encryption Standard. It was designed to look into weaknesses in Data Encryption Standard (DES).DES uses a 56-bit key and is not adequate enough in offering enough security.3DES lengthens the key size of DES by implementing thrice(56*3) making it longer and more secure. The RSA encryption standard is named after Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman the people behind its development in 1978(Rani1, Anil Chawla, 2011a).RSA standard is based on a public-key cryptography and is fit for authentication and encryption. RSA adopts three steps including generating keys, encryption and decryption (Rani1, Anil Chawla, 2011b). Some similarities in AES, 3DES and RSA include Keys are based on mathematical characteristics After a period of time, key strength decrease Faster computation time, if the algorithm has many Table 1 below compares encryption mechanism used in WiMAX in terms of their key length, cipher type, block size, encryption speed and level of security. FACTORS AES 3DES RSA Key length 128bits 168 bits(n1,n2,and n3) 112 bits(n1 and n2) Dependant on the number of bits Cipher Type Symmetric code Symmetric code Asymmetric code Block size (bits) 128bits 64bits variable Encryption Speed fast Very slow slowest Level of Security Excellent security Adequate security Least secure Table 1: Comparison of AES, 3DES and RSA (Gurpreet Supriya 2013) 2. WPAN stands for Wireless Personal Area Network. WPAN is designed to cover short-distances and supports mobile computing devices including mobile phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs),barcode readers, sensors, printers, desktop computers and handheld computers.( Mallick, 2008).Some examples of WPAN technologies include: Blue Tooth Bluetooth is a technology designed to connect both mobile and immobile electronic devices. It covers between thirty feet or ten meters. Devices including cell phones, PDAs, desktop computers and other portable devices can connect together without cable (Niem, 2002a). Figure 1 below shows a simple illustration of Bluetooth WPAN technology. Figure 1: Blue tooth WPAN (Niem, 2002b) Some security challenges in blue tooth technology include: Blue bugging is a process whereby intruders remotely gain unauthorized access to cell phones and manipulate its features without the owner realizing whats happening. This usually results in depletion of phone resources and make phone bills expensive for the user (Jennings, 2016a). Denial of Service (DoS) attacks - A DoS is an attack that holds system resources and blocks optimal user access. Attackers can intrude devices connected with Bluetooth and drain their system resources (Jennings, 2016b). ZigBee ZigBee is a developing standard for devices that use low-power (Dini Tiloca, n.d.). It allows control of remote devices and sensor applications especially in isolated locations (Radio Electronics, n.d.). Applications implementing this technology comprise of electrical meter systems, wireless switches, some traffic systems, and other wireless components (Wikipedia, 2016). ZigBee security challenges Difficult to achieve procedures including encryption, key management, and key exchange since they use a lot of power. System vulnerabilities due to low power consumption It is possible to access if no proper protection measures Firmware can be accessed and analyze and manipulated including cryptographic keys, digital certificates and application particulars making the standard a vulnerability References Alzaabi1, M., Ranjeeth, R, D., Alukaidey, T Salman,K. (2013). Security algorithms for WiMAX. International Journal of Network Security Its Applications (IJNSA), Vol.5, No.3, May 2013 Bhanot, R Hans, R. (2015). A Review and Comparative Analysis of Various Encryption Algorithms. International Journal of Security and Its Applications Vol. 9, No. 4 (2015), pp. 289-306 https://dx.doi.org/10.14257/ijsia.2015.9.4.27 Dini,G. Tiloca,M.(n.d). Considerations on Security in ZigBee Networks Forouzan, B, A. (2013) Data Communications and Networking, 5th Edition, McGraw-HilI Jennings, R. (2016), A Review of Bluetooth Attacks. Retrieved from https://www.webroot.com Mallick, M. (2008). Mobile and Wireless Design Essentials. Retrieved from www. https://etutorials.org/ Niem, T. (2002). Bluetooth And Its Inherent Security Issues. Retrieved from www. https://www.sans.org Radio Electronics. (n.d).Retrieved from https://www.radio-electronics.com/info/wireless/zigbee/zigbee.php Rani1,M., Anil, R Chawla, R(2011).Review of public key cryptography on WiMAX using RSA algorithm. E-ISSN0976-7916. JERS/Vol. II/ Issue IV/October-December, 2011/219-222 Singh, G Supriya.(2013). A Study of Encryption Algorithms (RSA, DES, 3DES and AES) for Information Security. International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 8887) Volume 67 No.19, April 2013 Stalling,W.(n.d).Cryptography and Network Security chapter-9. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA Tech Target (2010).WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access). Retrieved from https://searchtelecom.techtarget.com/ Wikipedia. (2016).Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZigBee Youssouf, M., Othman, S., Siraj, M Nkiama, H (2016). Comparative Study of AES, Blowfish, CAST-128 and DES Encryption Algorithm. IOSR Journal of Engineering (IOSRJEN) www.iosrjen.org ISSN (e): 2250-3021, ISSN (p): 2278-8719 Vol. 06, Issue 06 (June. 2016), ||V1|| PP 01-07